Composites Engineering Handbook For Hazardous Waste
A black (used as a reinforcement component) compared to a A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite, which is the common name) is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different or that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. More recently, researchers have also begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation and communication into composites, which are known as. Typical composite materials include:. and. such as., such as or.
and other Composite materials are generally used for, and such as, bodies, stalls, and and countertops. The most advanced examples perform routinely on and in demanding environments. Contents. History The earliest man-made composite materials were and combined to form for. Ancient was documented by.
Is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old. Concrete is also a composite material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the world.
As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic metre for every person on Earth. Woody, both true from and such plants as and, yield natural composites that were used prehistorically by mankind and are still used widely in construction and scaffolding.
3400 BC by the Ancient Mesopotamians; gluing wood at different angles gives better properties than natural wood. layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster dates to the c. 2181–2055 BC and was used for. Mud Bricks, or Mud Walls, (using mud (clay) with straw or gravel as a binder) have been used for thousands of years.
was described by, writing around 25 BC in his, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of. For structural mortars, he recommended, which were volcanic sands from the sandlike beds of brownish-yellow-gray in colour near and reddish-brown.
Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for cements used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio of lime to pulvis Puteolanus for underwater work, essentially the same ratio mixed today for concrete used at sea., after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, with some properties superior to manufactured., a composite of paper and glue, has been used for hundreds of years. The first artificial was which dates to 1907 , although natural polymers such as predate it. One of the most common and familiar composite is, in which small glass fibre are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester).
The glass fibre is relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible). Thus the resulting fibreglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, and ductile. Examples Composite Materials. Is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones (aggregate) held with a matrix of. Concrete is an inexpensive material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading (i.e., if stretched it will quickly break apart). Therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form.
(FRP)s include (CFRP) and (GRP). If classified by matrix then there are, or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous composites, including.
Many advanced systems usually incorporate and in an matrix. Composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix. Since a shape memory polymer resin is used as the matrix, these composites have the ability to be easily manipulated into various configurations when they are heated above their and will exhibit high strength and stiffness at lower temperatures. They can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties.
These composites are ideal for applications such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures; rapid manufacturing; and dynamic reinforcement. Are another type of high-performance composites that are designed to perform in a high deformation setting and are often used in deployable systems where structural flexing is advantageous. Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers, their performance is generally dependent on the fibre layout as opposed to the resin content of the matrix. Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in (MMC) or (CMC), which includes ( reinforced with fibres), (ceramic and metal) and.
Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for, not for strength. Another class of composite materials involve woven fabric composite consisting of longitudinal and transverse laced yarns. Woven fabric composites are flexible as they are in form of fabric. Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites include, and. Is a special type of used in military applications.
Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powders resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cm³ to 11 g/cm³ (same density as lead). The most common name for this type of material is 'high gravity compound' (HGC), although 'lead replacement' is also used. These materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as aluminium, stainless steel, brass, bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing (for example, modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis ), vibration damping, and radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically viable option when certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or when secondary operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating) are a factor. A is a special class of composite material that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with high with overall low.
Wood is a naturally occurring composite comprising cellulose fibres in a lignin and matrix. Includes a wide variety of different products such as wood fibre board, (recycled wood fibre in polyethylene matrix), (sawdust in ice matrix), Plastic-impregnated or or textiles, and. Other engineered laminate composites, such as, use a central core of end grain, bonded to surface skins of light or GRP. These generate low-weight, high rigidity materials. Particulate composites have particle as filler material dispersed in matrix, which may be nonmetal, such as glass, epoxy.
Automobile tire is an example of particulate composite. Advanced diamond-like carbon (DLC) coated polymer composites have been reported where the coating increases the surface hydrophobicity, hardness and wear resistance. Products Fibre-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as components (, ), boat and hulls, frames and bodies. Other uses include, swimming pool panels, and. The new structure including the wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also becoming more common in the realm of.And It is the most common hockey stick material. Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and for the phase of.
It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of. Furthermore, systems of and racing cars are using material, and the with and matrix has been introduced in and. In 2006, a fibre-reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in-ground swimming pools, residential as well as commercial, as a non-corrosive alternative to galvanized steel. In 2007, an all-composite military was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc, the first all-composite. By using composites the vehicle is lighter, allowing higher payloads.
In 2008, carbon fibre and Kevlar (five times stronger than steel) were combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high strength. Pipes and fittings for various purpose like transportation of potable water, fire-fighting, irrigation, seawater, desalinated water, chemical and industrial waste, and sewage are now manufactured in glass reinforced plastics. Overview. Carbon fibre composite part.
Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are two main categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions.
The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum combination. Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the cavity or onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in various ways such as chemical for a, or solidification from the melted state for a thermoplastic polymer matrix composite. A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements.
The principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate. Many commercially produced composites use a matrix material often called a resin solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations.
The most common are known as, and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals. The various methods described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60% fibre content. The strength of the product is greatly dependent on this ratio.
Martin Hubbe and Lucian A Lucia consider to be a natural composite of in a of. Constituents Matrices Organic Polymers are common matrices (especially used for fibre reinforced plastics). Road surfaces are often made from which uses as a matrix. Mud (wattle and daub) has seen extensive use.
Typically, most common polymer-based composite materials, including, and, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin. Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications.
Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide). When the peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the curing reaction. Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst. Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower viscosity than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel resistant, but will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over time to degradation than polyester resin, and is more flexible.
It uses the same hardeners as polyester resin (at a similar mix ratio) and the cost is approximately the same. Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured.
In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material or as a structural glue. (SMP) resins have varying visual characteristics depending on their formulation. These resins may be epoxy-based, which can be used for auto body and outdoor equipment repairs; cyanate-ester-based, which are used in space applications; and acrylate-based, which can be used in very cold temperature applications, such as for sensors that indicate whether perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature. These resins are unique in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their temperature (T g). When heated, they become flexible and elastic, allowing for easy configuration. Once they are cooled, they will maintain their new shape.
The resins will return to their original shapes when they are reheated above their T g. The advantage of shape memory polymer resins is that they can be shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties.
These resins can be used in fabricating shape memory composites. Traditional materials such as glues, muds have traditionally been used as matrices for and.
Inorganic Cement (concrete), metals, ceramics, and sometimes glasses are employed. Unusual matrices such as ice are sometime proposed as in. Reinforcements Fibre. Differences in the way the fibres are laid out give different strengths and ease of manufacture Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation.
Thin fibres can have very high strength, and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they can greatly improve the composite's overall properties.reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred to as and continuous fibre-reinforced materials. Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure. The woven and continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms, being pre-impregnated with the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various widths, plain weave, harness satins, braided, and stitched. The short and long fibres are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is achieved). Common fibres used for reinforcement include, carbon fibres, cellulose (wood/paper fibre and straw) and high strength polymers for example. Fibres are used for some high temperature applications.
Other reinforcement Concrete uses, and reinforced concrete additionally uses steel bars to tension the concrete. Steel mesh or wires are also used in some glass and plastic products. Cores Many composite layup designs also include a co-curing or post-curing of the prepreg with various other media, such as honeycomb or foam. This is commonly called a. This is a more common layup for the manufacture of radomes, doors, cowlings, or non-structural parts. Open- and closed-cell-structured like, or foams, and are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-cell can also be used as core materials.
Recently, 3D graphene structures ( also called graphene foam) have also been employed as core structures. A recent review by Khurram and Xu et al., have provided the summary of the state-of-the-art techniques for fabrication of the 3D structure of graphene, and the examples of the use of these foam like structures as a core for their respective polymer composites. Fabrication methods Fabrication of composite materials is accomplished by a wide variety of techniques, including:.
(Automated fibre placement). Composite fabrication usually involves wetting, mixing or saturating the with the, and then causing the matrix to bind together (with heat or a chemical reaction) into a rigid structure.
The operation is usually done in an open or closed forming mold, but the order and ways of introducing the ingredients varies considerably. Mold overview Within a mold, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted, and cured (processed) to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set, although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a material, the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the melting point. For many moulding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a 'lower' mould and another mould piece as an 'upper' mould.
Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the moulded panel, not the mould's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a lower mould, and sometimes an upper mould.
Part construction begins by applying materials to the lower mould. Lower mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more common and specific terms such as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat, mandrel, etc. Continuous manufacturing uses a different nomenclature.
The moulded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material combinations, it can be referred to as a casting.
For certain continuous processes, it can be referred to as a profile. Vacuum bag moulding Vacuum bag moulding uses a flexible film to enclose the part and seal it from outside air. Vacuum bag material is available in a tube shape or a sheet of material.
A vacuum is then drawn on the vacuum bag and atmospheric pressure compresses the part during the cure. When a tube shaped bag is used, the entire part can be enclosed within the bag. When using sheet bagging materials, the edges of the vacuum bag are sealed against the edges of the mould surface to enclose the part against an air-tight mould. When bagged in this way, the lower mold is a rigid structure and the upper surface of the part is formed by the flexible membrane vacuum bag.
The flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. After sealing the part inside the vacuum bag, a vacuum is drawn on the part (and held) during cure. This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure acting upon the vacuum bag. A vacuum pump is typically used to draw a vacuum. An economical method of drawing a vacuum is with a and air compressor. A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong -coated or a polymer film used to compress the part during cure or hardening.
In some applications the bag encloses the entire material, or in other applications a is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being a single layer to seal to the outer edge of the mold face. When using a tube shaped bag, the ends of the bag are sealed and the air is drawn out of the bag through a nipple using a.
As a result, uniform pressure approaching one is applied to the surfaces of the object inside the bag, holding parts together while the. The entire bag may be placed in a temperature-controlled oven, oil bath or water bath and gently heated to accelerate curing. Vacuum bagging is widely used in the composites industry as well. Fabric and, along with resins and epoxies are common materials laminated together with a vacuum bag operation.
Woodworking applications In commercial woodworking facilities, vacuum bags are used to laminate curved and irregular shaped workpieces. Typically, polyurethane or vinyl materials are used to make the bag. A tube shaped bag is open at both ends. The piece, or pieces to be glued are placed into the bag and the ends sealed. One method of sealing the open ends of the bag is by placing a clamp on each end of the bag.
A plastic rod is laid across the end of the bag, the bag is then folded over the rod. A plastic sleeve with an opening in it, is then snapped over the rod. This procedure forms a seal at both ends of the bag, when the vacuum is ready to be drawn. A 'platen' is sometimes used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lie on. The platen has a series of small slots cut into it, to allow the air under it to be evacuated.
The platen must have rounded edges and corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag. When a curved part is to be glued in a vacuum bag, it is important that the pieces being glued be placed over a solidly built form, or have an air bladder placed under the form. This air bladder has access to 'free air' outside the bag. It is used to create an equal pressure under the form, preventing it from being crushed. Pressure bag moulding This process is related to vacuum bag molding in exactly the same way as it sounds.
A solid female mold is used along with a flexible male mold. The reinforcement is placed inside the female mold with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place (wet lay up). A measured amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the mold and the mold is then clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible mold. The flexible male membrane is then inflated with heated compressed air or possibly steam.
The female mold can also be heated. Excess resin is forced out along with trapped air. This process is extensively used in the production of composite due to the lower cost of unskilled labor.
Cycle times for a helmet bag moulding machine vary from 20 to 45 minutes, but the finished shells require no further curing if the molds are heated. Autoclave moulding A process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically.
They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile constructions. Most often, they are pre-impregnated with the resin in the form of fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In some instances, a resin film is placed upon the lower mould and dry reinforcement is placed above. The upper mould is installed and vacuum is applied to the mould cavity. The assembly is placed into an. This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fibre volume fraction and low void content for maximum structural efficiency.
Resin transfer moulding (RTM) RTM is a process using a rigid two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The mould is typically constructed from aluminum or steel, but composite molds are sometimes used. The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is closed prior to the introduction of matrix material. Resin transfer moulding includes numerous varieties which differ in the mechanics of how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the mould cavity.
These variations include everything from the RTM methods used in for high-tech aerospace components to vacuum infusion (for resin infusion see also ) to vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM). This process can be performed at either or elevated temperature. Other fabrication methods Other types of fabrication include press moulding, moulding, centrifugal casting, and. There are also forming capabilities including filament winding, vacuum infusion, wet lay-up, and moulding, to name a few.
The use of curing ovens and paint booths is also needed for some projects. Finishing methods The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design.
Many of these finishes will include rain-erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings. Tooling The mold and mold inserts are referred to as 'tooling.' The mold/tooling can be constructed from a variety of materials. Tooling materials include, steel, reinforced, and. Selection of the tooling material is typically based on, but not limited to, the, expected number of cycles, end item tolerance, desired or required surface condition, method of cure, of the material being moulded, moulding method, matrix, cost and a variety of other considerations. Physical properties.
Plot of the overall strength of a composite material as a function of fiber volume fraction limited by the upper bound (isostrain) and lower bound (isostress) conditions. The physical properties of composite materials are generally not (independent of direction of applied force) in nature, but they are typically (different depending on the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. The strength of a composite is bounded by two loading conditions as shown in the plot to the right. If both the fibres and matrix are aligned parallel to the loading direction, the deformation of both phases will be the same (assuming there is no delamination at the fibre-matrix interface). This isostrain condition provides the upper bound for composite strength, and is determined by the rule of mixtures. The graph depicts the three fracture modes a composite material may experience depending on the angle of misorientation relative to aligning fibres parallel to the applied stress.
The majority of commercial composites are formed with random dispersion and orientation of the strengthening fibres, in which case the composite Young’s modulus will fall between the isostrain and isostress bounds. However, in applications where the strength-to-weight ratio is engineered to be as high as possible (such as in the aerospace industry), fibre alignment may be tightly controlled.
Panel stiffness is also dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fibre reinforcement and matrix used, the method of panel build, thermoset versus thermoplastic, and type of weave. In contrast to composites, isotropic materials (for example, aluminium or steel), in standard wrought forms, typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. The relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures for an isotropic material can be described with the following material properties: Young's Modulus, the and the, in relatively simple mathematical relationships.
For the anisotropic material, it requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants. For the special case of orthogonal isotropy, there are three different material property constants for each of Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus and Poisson's ratio—a total of 9 constants to describe the relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures.
Techniques that take advantage of the anisotropic properties of the materials include joints (in natural composites such as wood) and in synthetic composites. Failure Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface between two layers, a condition known as. Individual fibres can separate from the matrix e.g.
Composites can fail on the or scale. Compression failures can occur at both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fibre in compression buckling.
Tension failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure of the bond between the matrix and fibres. Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the onset of damage. The variations in fibres and matrices that are available and the that can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a composite structure. The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when the carbon-carbon composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the fractured when impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-up of the vehicle when it re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 1 February 2003.
Compared to metals, composites have relatively poor bearing strength. Testing To aid in predicting and preventing failures, composites are tested before and after construction. Pre-construction testing may use (FEA) for ply-by-ply analysis of curved surfaces and predicting wrinkling, crimping and dimpling of composites. Materials may be tested during manufacturing and after construction through several methods including ultrasonics, thermography, shearography and X-ray radiography, and laser bond inspection for NDT of relative bond strength integrity in a localized area. See also., American aerospace company founded by. References. Shaffer, G.D.
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Composites Engineering Handbook For Hazardous Waste Disposal
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Mechanics of Composite Materials (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. Mechanics of Composite Materials (2nd ed.). Handbook of Polymer Composites for Engineers By Leonard Hollaway Published 1994 Woodhead Publishing. Madbouly, Samy, Chaoqun Zhang, and Michael R. Bio-Based Plant Oil Polymers and Composites.
William Andrew, 2015. Blood bowl star player cards pdf. Matthews, F.L.; Rawlings, R.D.
Composite Materials: Engineering and Science. Boca Raton: CRC Press. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to.
Blair McDonald Associate Professor of QC Engineering Engineering WIU QC Riverfront 202 (309) 762-9481 Ext. 62781 B-Mcdonald2@wiu.edu Biography Ph.D. 1996, Civil Engineering University of Utah M. 1990, Civil Engineering University of Utah B. 1983, Civil Engineering University of Utah Professional Registration:. Professional Engineer, Utah License No. 166915.
Professional Land Surveyor, Utah License No. 166915.
OSHA Health and Safety, 40 Hr. Hazardous Waste, 1988 Academic Interests. Integration of fundamental science, technology and engineering concepts into a comprehensive engineering curriculum. Development of computer based training in engineering education. Utilization of evolving pedagogical models in engineering education. Teaching: solid mechanics, soil mechanics, geotechnical engineering, surface and ground water hydrology, land surveying, site development, computer aided drafting and design, numerical modeling, and comprehensive project courses.
Authoring electronic text books for engineering subjects. Research Interests. Characterization of heavy metal contamination in soil using X-ray fluorescence. Use of X-ray fluorescence analysis during cone penetrometer continuous push. Soil stability and consolidation, insitu testing. Renewable energy; development and application of solar and wind technologies. Application of composite engineering material technologies.
Development and application of remotely controlled systems. Courses for Fall 2012. ENGR 351: Engineering Material Science. ENGR 453: Geotechnical Design.
ENGR 460: Steel Design.